Cilt 13 Sayı 2 (2025): Business & Management Studies: An International Journal
Makaleler

Cantillon öncesi girişimcilik: Antik ve orta çağda ticaretin evrimi ve girişimcilik unsurlarının tarihsel izleri

Osman Akarsu
Dr. Öğretim Üyesi, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali Üniversitesi, Bilecik, Türkiye
Biyografi
Ramazan Özbay
Öğr. Görv. Dr., Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat Üniversitesi, Alanya, Antalya, Türkiye
Biyografi

Yayınlanmış 25.06.2025

Anahtar Kelimeler

  • of Entrepreneurship, Pre-Cantillon Entrepreneurship, Ancient Entrepreneurship, Medieval Entrepreneurship
  • Girişimcilik Tarihi, Cantillon Öncesi Girişimcilik, Antik Girişimcilik, Orta Çağ Girişimciliği

Nasıl Atıf Yapılır

Cantillon öncesi girişimcilik: Antik ve orta çağda ticaretin evrimi ve girişimcilik unsurlarının tarihsel izleri. (2025). Business & Management Studies: An International Journal, 13(2), 675-699. https://doi.org/10.15295/bmij.v13i2.2564

Nasıl Atıf Yapılır

Cantillon öncesi girişimcilik: Antik ve orta çağda ticaretin evrimi ve girişimcilik unsurlarının tarihsel izleri. (2025). Business & Management Studies: An International Journal, 13(2), 675-699. https://doi.org/10.15295/bmij.v13i2.2564

Öz

Bu çalışma, girişimcilik düşüncesinin henüz bilimsel bir disiplin haline gelmediği ilk ortaya çıkışından günümüze kadar olan evrimini izlemeyi ve Cantillon'dan önceki ve tarih boyunca farklı medeniyetlerde şekillenen girişimcilik kavramlarını vurgulamayı amaçlamaktadır. Detaylı alan yazın taraması ve doküman analizi kullanarak, bu çalışma antik el yazmaları ve yasal metinler gibi ikincil kaynakları inceler. Bulgular, antik ve orta çağda girişimciliğin modern biçimiyle var olmamasına rağmen, farklı dönemlerin koşullarına uyum sağlayarak yapılandırılmış yasal, sosyal ve ekonomik çerçeveler içinde geliştiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Bu girişimcilik faaliyetleri, tarihsel değişimin hem yapıcı hem de yıkıcı güçlerini vurgulayarak kademeli ve birbirine bağımlı bir şekilde evrimleşmiştir. Bu çalışma, ekonomik ve toplumsal yapılarda köklü varlığını vurgulayarak, Cantillon öncesi girişimciliğin belgesel bir incelemesini sunarak girişimcilik tarihi literatürüne katkıda bulunmaktadır.

Referanslar

  1. Abrutyn, S. (2015). The institutional evolution of religion: innovation and entrepreneurship in ancient Israel. Religion, 45(4), 505-531. https://doi.org/10.1080/0048721x.2015.1009864
  2. Abu-Lughod, J. L. (1989). Before European hegemony: The world system A.D. 1250–1350. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195067743.001.0001
  3. Akarsu, O. (2021). Girişimcilik yönelimini etkileyen faktörler nelerdir? Teknoparklarda Bir Araştırma. (Doctoral Thesis), Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi, Eskişehir, (1-297). https://l24.im/b2N0
  4. Akarsu, O., and Döven, M. S. (2022). Girişimci ve Girişimcilik Kavramları Üzerine Tarihsel Bir Değerlendirme: Tanımlarda Yer Alan Ortak Vurgular. Yorum Yönetim Yöntem Uluslararası Yönetim Ekonomi ve Felsefe Dergisi, 10(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.32705/yorumyonetim.1094253
  5. Ambec, S., Cohen, M. A., Elgie, S., and Lanoie, P. (2013). The Porter hypothesis at 20: can environmental regulation enhance innovation and competitiveness? Review of environmental economics and policy. https://doi.org/10.1093/reep/res016
  6. Aristoteles, Ross, W. D., Ackrill, J. L., and Urmson, J. O. (1998). The Nicomachean Ethics (Vol. 2). Oxford University Press Oxford. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt6wq12z.13
  7. Baer, W. C. (2007). Early retailing: London's shopping exchanges, 1550–1700. Business History, 49(1), 29-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076790601063006
  8. Baumol, W. J. (1996). Entrepreneurship: Productive, unproductive, and destructive. Journal of Business Venturing, 11(1), 3-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/0883-9026(94)00014-x
  9. Bede (1907). Ecclesiastical history of England: A revised translation with introduction, life, and notes (A. M. Sellar, Trans.). London, UK: George Bell and Sons. (Original work composed c. 731). Retrieved from http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bede/history.html
  10. Bitros, G. C., and Karayiannis, A. D. (2008). Values and institutions as determinants of entrepreneurship in ancient Athens. Journal of Institutional Economics, 4(2), 205-230. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1744137408000969
  11. Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative research journal, 9(2), 27-40. https://doi.org/10.3316/qrj0902027
  12. Brasó Broggi, C. (2018). The economic history of China: From antiquity to the nineteenth century: Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2017.1361056
  13. Brockett, G. D. (2014). When Ottomans become Turks: Commemorating the conquest of Constantinople and its contribution to world history. The American Historical Review, 119(2), 399-433. https://doi.org/10.1093/ahr/119.2.399
  14. Brown, C., and Thornton, M. (2011). Entrepreneurship theory and the creation of economics: insights from Cantillon's Essai. https://l24.im/Bd8Ip
  15. Brown, C., and Thornton, M. (2013). How entrepreneurship theory created economics. Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics, 16(4). https://l24.im/vkxtAD
  16. Buchanan, D. H. (2013). Development of capitalistic enterprise in India: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315033884
  17. Cantillon, R. (1959). Essai sur la nature du commerce en général (H. Higgs, Ed. and Trans.). London: Frank Cass. (Original work published 1755). Retrieved from https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/higgs-essay-on-the-nature-of-trade-in-general-higgs-ed
  18. Cantillon, R. (2010). Essay on Economic Theory, An: Ludwig von Mises Institute. https://l24.im/WnXyTx
  19. Caracausi, A. (2016). Textiles manufacturing, product innovations and transfers of technology in Padua and Venice between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries Innovation and creativity in late medieval and early modern European cities (pp. 131-160): Routledge. https://l24.im/rcg
  20. Carson, S. J., Madhok, A., and Wu, T. (2006). Uncertainty, opportunism, and governance: The effects of volatility and ambiguity on formal and relational contracting. Academy of Management journal, 49(5), 1058-1077. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2006.22798187
  21. Cassis, Y., and Minoglou, I. P. (2005). Entrepreneurship in theory and history: State of the art and new perspectives. Entrepreneurship in theory and history, 3-21. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230522633_1
  22. Casson, M., and Casson, C. (2014). The history of entrepreneurship: Medieval origins of a modern phenomenon. Business History, 56(8), 1223-1242. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2013.867330
  23. Chakrabarty, D. (2010). The Calling of History: Sir Jadunath Sarkar and his Empire of Truth. University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226240244.001.0001
  24. Charpin, D. (2012). Hammurabi of Babylon. Bloomsbury Publishing. https://doi.org/10.5040/9780755625727
  25. Cherukara, J., and Manalel, J. (2011). Evolution of Entrepreneurship theories through different schools of thought. Paper presented at the The Ninth Biennial Conference on Entrepreneurship at EDI, Ahmedabad. https://l24.im/67fzBK
  26. Clark, P., and Rowlinson, M. (2004). The treatment of history in organisation studies: towards an ‘historic turn’? Business History, 46(3), 331-352. https://doi.org/10.1080/0007679042000219175
  27. Collinge, P. (2019). Guilds, authority and the individual: The Company of Mercers prosecution of Dorothy Gretton in early eighteenth-century Derby. Business History, 61(2), 281-298. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2017.1368492
  28. Corbin, J., and Strauss, A. (2014). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Sage publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452230153
  29. Coşkun, R. (2017). Yönetim Organizasyon Kitaplarında Klasik Yönetime Atfedilen “Kapalı Sistem” Yakıştırmasına İtiraz: 1925 Yılından Önce Yazılmış Seçilmiş Kitaplarda “Açık Sistem” İmaları Üzerine Nitel Bir Çözümleme. 8. Uluslararası Balkanlarda Sosyal Bilimler Kongresi, 1-12. https://l24.im/bmACHVO
  30. Creswell, J. W., and Báez, J. C. (2020). 30 essential skills for the qualitative researcher. Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjpe.75739
  31. Crone, P. (2015). Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam. Piscataway, NJ, USA: Gorgias Press. https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463209933
  32. Cumming, D. J., Guariglia, A., Hou, W., and Lee, E. (2016). History and Evolution of Entrepreneurship and Finance in China (Vol. 58, pp. 317-318): Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2015.1122701
  33. Denzin, N. K., and Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). The Sage handbook of qualitative research. sage. https://l24.im/la91
  34. Di Tullio, M., and Ongaro, G. (2020). Gaining power: Rural elites in Northern Italy during the early modern period. The Journal of European Economic History, 49(1), 75-109. https://www.jeeh.it/articolo?urn=urn:abi:abi:RIV.JOU:2020;1.75
  35. Economou, E. M., and Kyriazis, N. C. (2017). The emergence and the evolution of property rights in ancient Greece. Journal of Institutional Economics, 13(1), 53-77. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1744137416000205
  36. Ekelund Jr, R. B., and Hébert, R. F. (2013). A history of economic theory and method: Waveland Press. https://l24.im/F3Atb
  37. Elert, N., and Henrekson, M. (2017). Entrepreneurship and institutions: a bidirectional relationship. Foundations and Trends in Entrepreneurship, 13(3), 191-263. https://doi.org/10.1561/0300000073
  38. Epstein, S. R. (1998). Craft guilds, apprenticeship, and technological change in preindustrial Europe. The journal of economic history, 58(3), 684-713. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700021124
  39. Finley, M. I. (1973). The ancient economy. University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520353305
  40. Foster, W. M., Coraiola, D. M., Suddaby, R., Kroezen, J., and Chandler, D. (2017). The strategic use of historical narratives: A theoretical framework. Business History, 59(8), 1176-1200. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2016.1224234
  41. Gaius (1875). Institutes of Roman law (E. Poste, Trans.). Clarendon Press. Retrieved from https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/Anglica/gai1_Poste.htm (Original work composed c. 160).
  42. Gibb, J. R. (1959). The Role of the Consultant. Journal of Social Issues, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1959.tb01441.x
  43. Goitein, S. (1967). Mediterranean Society, Volume I: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, Economic Foundations. Berkeley: University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520354128
  44. Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597-607. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2003.1870
  45. Gordon, M. S., Robinson, C. F., Rowson, E. K., and Fishbein, M. (Eds.). The Works of Ibn Wāḍiḥ al-Yaʿqūbī (Volume 2). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004364158
  46. Gottheil, R., and Worrell, W. H. (Eds.). (1927). Fragments from the Cairo Genizah in the Freer Collection. Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.12945702
  47. Granovetter, M. (2018). The impact of social structure on economic outcomes. In The sociology of economic life (pp. 46-61). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429494338-4
  48. Greif, A. (1989). Reputation and coalitions in medieval trade: Evidence on the Maghribi traders. The Journal of Economic History, 49(4), 857–882. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050700009475
  49. Guba, E. G. (1981). Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. Ectj, 29(2), 75-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02766777
  50. Hammurabi (1910). The Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King, Trans.). Retrieved from https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/hamframe.asp (Original work composed c. 1754 BCE).
  51. Hébert, R. F., and Link, A. N. (1988). The entrepreneur: Mainstream views and radical critiques (2nd ed.). Praeger. https://doi.org/10.2307/1058249
  52. Hébert, R. F., and Link, A. N. (2009). A history of entrepreneurship. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203877326
  53. Hirata, K. (2024). Mining the informal empire: Sino-Japanese relations and ironmaking in Manchuria, 1909–1931. Business History, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2024.2340629
  54. Holt, R. (2016). Reimagining business history. Business History, 58(1), 149-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2015.1031325
  55. Ibn Battūta (1959). The travels of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa A.D. 1325-1354 (H. A. R. Gibb, Trans. and Ed.; Vol. 2). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/download/travels-of-ibn-battuta/The%20Travels%20of%20Ibn%20Battuta-1325%E2%80%931354-Volume-II.pdf (Original work published c. 1355)
  56. Iordanou, I. (2024). The origins of organisation: A trans-methodological approach to the historical analysis of preindustrial organisations. Business History, 66(7), 1689-1711. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2023.2181957
  57. Jonsson, P. O. (2017). On the Term'Entrepreneur'and the Conceptualization of Entrepreneurship in the Literature of Classical Economics. International Journal of English Linguistics, 7(6), 16-29. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v7n6p16
  58. Jowett, B. (1887). The Politics of Aristotle: I. Clarendon Press. https://philpapers.org/rec/ARITPO-12
  59. Jursa, M. (2010). Aspects of the economic history of Babylonia in the first millennium BC. Ugarit-Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1515/olzg-2018-0066
  60. Justinian (1904). The Digest of Justinian (C. H. Monro, Trans., Vol. 1). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/digestofjustinia01char (Original work published 533).
  61. Kalantaridis, C. (2004). Understanding the entrepreneur: An institutionalist perspective. https://l24.im/kGpa
  62. Kautilya. (c. 300 CE). Arthashastra (R. Shamasastry, Trans.). Mysore Government Press. (Original work published c. 300 CE). Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/Arthasastra_English_Translation
  63. Khanna, V. S. (2005). The economic history of organizational entities in ancient India. Michigan Law and Economics Research Paper(05-014). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.883670
  64. Kıral, B. (2020). Nitel bir veri analizi yöntemi olarak doküman analizi. Siirt Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 8(15), 170-189. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/susbid/issue/54983/727462
  65. Kieser, A. (1989). Organizational, institutional, and societal evolution: Medieval craft guilds and the genesis of formal organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 540-564. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393566
  66. King, L. W. (Trans.). (1910). The code of Hammurabi. Yale Law School – The Avalon Project. Retrieved from https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/hamframe.asp
  67. Labuschagne, A. (2003). Qualitative research: Airy fairy or fundamental. The Qualitative Report, 8(1), 100-103. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2003.1901
  68. Li, H. (2013). History and development of entrepreneurship in China. Entrepreneurship and economic growth in China, 13-33. https://doi.org/10.1142/9789814273374_0002
  69. Locke, J. (1821). Two treatises on government. for R. Butler, W. Reid, W. Sharpe, and J. Bumpus. https://l24.im/lbkEnN
  70. Lopez, R. S. (1976). The commercial revolution of the Middle Ages, 950–1350. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511583933
  71. Mālik ibn Anas, I. (2014). Al-Muwatta (A. A. Bewley, Trans., 2nd ed.). Diwan Press. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/malikmuwatta_202408/page/5/mode/2up (Original work composed ca. 8th-century CE).
  72. Manning, J. G. (2018). The Open Sea: The Economic Life of the Ancient Mediterranean World from the Iron Age to the Rise of Rome. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvc7752s
  73. McCormick, M. (2001). Origins of the European economy: Communications and commerce, AD 300–900. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107050693
  74. Merriam, S. (2009). Qualitative research a guide to design and ımplementation. In: San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. https://l24.im/rTmSAi
  75. Michel, C., Middeke-Conlin, R., and Proust, C. (2020). A Comparative Study of Prices and Wages in Royal Inscriptions. Mathematics, Administrative and Economic Activities in Ancient Worlds, 5, 51. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48389-0_2
  76. Moore, K., and Reid, S. (2008). The birth of brand: 4000 years of branding. Business History, 50(4), 419-432. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076790802106299
  77. Mordhorst, M., and Schwarzkopf, S. (2017). Theorising narrative in business history. Business History, 59(8), 1155-1175. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2017.1357697
  78. Morgan, H. (2022). Conducting a qualitative document analysis. The Qualitative Report, 27(1), 64-77. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2022.5044
  79. Murphy, A. E. (1986). Richard Cantillon: entrepreneur and economist. Oxford University Press. https://l24.im/pL0G
  80. Murthy, V., and McKie, D. (2008). Learning from historical periods: zeitgeist correlations between environment, leadership, and strategy. World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development, 4(4), 331-344. https://doi.org/10.1504/wremsd.2008.020116
  81. Nagarajan, K. (2011). The Code of Hammurabi: an economic interpretation. International journal of business and social science, 2(8). https://l24.im/EWci7uj
  82. Pacey, A., and Bray, F. (2021). Technology in World Civilization, revised and expanded edition: a Thousand-Year History. Mit Press. https://l24.im/sfZzqYK
  83. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (Vol. 3). Sage.
  84. https://doi.org/10.1177/1035719X030030021
  85. Pereira, V., Temouri, Y., Tarba, S., and Abdelrehimd, N. (2025). Exploring business history of the Middle East and North Africa region. In (Vol. 67, pp. 305-317): Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2024.2363102
  86. Platteau, J.-P. (2015). Institutions, social norms and economic development: Routledge.
  87. Polanyi, K., Arensberg, C. M., and Pearson, H. W. (Eds.). (1957). Trade and markets in the early empires: Economies in history and theory. Free Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/2089492
  88. Polo, M. (1899). The travels of Marco Polo: The Venetian. The translation of Marsden revised with a selection of his notes (T. Wright, Ed.). London, UK: George Bell and Sons. (Original work composed c. 1298). https://doi.org/10.2307/197858
  89. Pomeroy, S. B. (1994). Oeconomicus: A Social and Historical Commentary, with a New English Translation. https://www.jstor.org/stable/712370
  90. Pomeroy, S. B. (2010). Slavery in the Greek Domestic Economy in the Light of Xenophon’s Oeconomicus. Xenophon, Oxford Readings in Classical Studies Edited by Vivienne J. Gray, Oxford University Press Inc.: New York, 31-40.
  91. Popp, A., and Fellman, S. (2017). Writing business history: Creating narratives. Business History, 59(8), 1242-1260. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2016.1250742
  92. Porter, M. E., and Linde, C. v. d. (1995). Toward a new conception of the environment-competitiveness relationship. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9(4), 97-118. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.9.4.97
  93. Powell, M. A. (1996). Money in Mesopotamia. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 39(3), 224–242. https://doi.org/10.2307/3632646
  94. Prior, L. (2003). Using documents in social research. SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857020222
  95. Richet, J.-L. (2022). A loose coupling perspective on Ancient Egypt economy and society. Business History, 64(6), 1149-1171. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2020.1754802
  96. Rooney, J., and Murthy, V. (2024). Management and social order in ancient India. Business History, 1-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2024.2415452
  97. Rosser, G. (1997). Crafts, guilds and the negotiation of work in the medieval town. Past and Present(154), 3-31. https://doi.org/10.1093/past/154.1.3
  98. Roth, M. T. (1997). Law collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor (2nd ed.). Scholars Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.25577265
  99. Rubashkina, Y., Galeotti, M., and Verdolini, E. (2015). Environmental regulation and competitiveness: Empirical evidence on the Porter Hypothesis from European manufacturing sectors. Energy policy, 83, 288-300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2015.02.014
  100. Sak, R., Sak, İ. T. Ş., Şendil, Ç. Ö., and Nas, E. (2021). Bir araştırma yöntemi olarak doküman analizi. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Eğitim Dergisi, 4(1), 227-256. https://doi.org/10.33400/kuje.843306
  101. Scheidel, W. (2009). Rome and China: Comparative perspectives on ancient world empires. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195336900.001.0001
  102. Schumpeter, J.A. (1955). History of Economic Analysis (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203983911
  103. Schumpeter, J. A., and Swedberg, R. (2021). The theory of economic development: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003146766
  104. Scott, W. R., and Davis, G. F. (2015). Organizations and organizing: Rational, natural and open systems perspectives. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315663371
  105. Sen, A. (2004). Rationality and freedom. Harvard university press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1dv0td8
  106. Singh, B. (2023). Ancipreneur is The Way: Ancient Lessons for Modern Entrepreneurs. Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Economic Development, 50. https://www.kisa.link/sooUl
  107. Smith, A. (2000). The wealth of nations. Modern Library. https://www.kisa.link/HuOGp
  108. Smith, A., and Greer, K. (2017). Uniting business history and global environmental history (Vol. 59, pp. 987-1009): Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2017.1338688
  109. Spengler, J. J. (1954). Richard Cantillon: First of the moderns. I. Journal of political economy, 62(4), 281-295. https://doi.org/10.1086/257535
  110. Stow, K. (2009). Alienated minority: the Jews of medieval Latin Europe: Harvard University Press. https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674015937
  111. Surdam, D. G. (2020). Business Ethics from Antiquity to the 19th Century. Springer Books. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37165-4
  112. Temin, P. (2012). The Roman market economy. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691147680.001.0001
  113. Thornton, M. (2019). Why Did Cantillon Change the Meaning of Entrepreneurship? MISES: Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy, Law and Economics, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.30800/mises.2019.v7.1241
  114. Thornton, M. (2020). Turning the word upside down: How Cantillon redefined the entrepreneur. Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics, 23(3-4), 265-280. https://doi.org/10.35297/qjae.010071
  115. Tisdell, E. J., Merriam, S. B., and Stuckey-Peyrot, H. L. (2025). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. John Wiley and Sons. https://www.kisa.link/HRgge
  116. Toninelli, P. A., and Vasta, M. (2014). Opening the black box of entrepreneurship: The Italian case in a historical perspective. Business History, 56(2), 161-186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2012.745068
  117. Trice, H. M., and Beyer, J. M. (1993). The cultures of work organizations: Prentice-Hall, Inc. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1992-98310-000
  118. Udovitch, A. L. (1970). Partnership and profit in medieval Islam. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400820474
  119. Van Engen, J. (1986). The Christian Middle Ages as an historiographical problem. The American Historical Review, 91(3), 519-552. https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/91.3.519
  120. Volti, R., and Croissant, J. (2024). Society and technological change. Waveland Press. https://www.waveland.com/browse.php?t=789andr=a%7C1082
  121. Von Glahn, R. (2016). An economic history of China: From antiquity to the nineteenth century: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139343848
  122. Wach, E., and Ward, R. (2013). Learning about qualitative document analysis. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-35305-5_17
  123. Weber, M., and Kalberg, S. (2013). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. Routledge.
  124. Wesley, J. J. (2014). The qualitative analysis of political documents. In From text to political positions (pp. 135-160). John Benjamins Publishing Company.
  125. Witzel, M. (2002). Builders and dreamers: The making and meaning of management.
  126. Wennekers, S., and Thurik, R. (1999). Linking entrepreneurship and economic growth. Small Business Economics, 13, 27-56. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1008063200484
  127. Wood, L. M., Sebar, B., and Vecchio, N. (2020). Application of rigour and credibility in qualitative document analysis: Lessons learnt from a case study. The Qualitative Report, 25(2), 456-470.
  128. Wren, D. A. (2000). Medieval or modern? A scholastic's view of business ethics, circa 1430. Journal of Business Ethics, 28, 109-119. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1006270724454
  129. Wunsch, C. (2010). Neo-Babylonian Entrepreneurs. The Invention of Enterprise: Entrepreneurship from Ancient Mesopotamia to Modern Times, 40-61.
  130. Xenophon (1897). Oeconomicus (H. G. Dakyns, Trans.). Macmillan. Retrieved from https://stuff.mit.edu/afs/athena/course/21/21h.401/www/local/xenophon_oikonomikos.html (Original work composed c. 362 BCE).